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[PSYCHODYNAMIC]
The Structure of the Personality
1. Freud suggested that personality comprised of three interrelated parts Id, ego, superego
1. The Id (sexual energy; aggressive energy). Pleasure principle.
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. The Superego incorporates norms and values.
. The Ego mediates between the Id, the world, and the Superego. Reality principle.
ID fundamental component of personality (it)
- reservoir of instinctual energy, or libido, and is completely unconscious
- provides the energy, power for the operation of the whole personality
- closely related to bodily processes from which it derives its energy
- contents of the id are repressed, kept from reaching conscious level
- operates by the pleasure principle discharges increases in tension (if energy builds up due to environmental stimulation or internal changes, then it tries to discharge this energy as easily and quickly as possible)
Ego (I)
- develops out of the id because the id is incapable of satisfying its needs effectively
- operates according to the reality principle and its aim is to prevent the discharge of tension from the id until an object appropriate for the need is found in the world
- results in individual delaying gratification, working for long-term goals
Superego (above I)
- representative of social values and ideals
- the main functions of the superego
a. to inhibit the impulses of the id, particularly sexual and aggressive drives
b. to influence the ego to substitute moral goals for immoral ones
c. to strive for perfection
Defense Mechanisms' unconscious distortions of reality that keep conflicts from the selfs conscious awareness
REPRESSION threatening thoughts and memories are kept from consciousness and pushed back into unconscious
- traumatic memories are repressed
PROJECTION person unknowingly attributes his own instinctual impulses to others. The unconscious act or process of ascribing to others one's own ideas, impulses or emotions, especially when they are undesirable or thought to cause anxiety. (e.g., when broke up with girlfriend, express belief that he doesnt love any more, actually might be girlfriend who doesnt love and projects it onto males)
. PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGE
Freud believed that people derive their psychological energy from sources in their body. He felt that this energy, called libido, is primarily pleasurable, and therefore associated with sex and one of the Erogenous zones (sensitive area of skin that is pleasurable to manipulate)
- at each stage the childs focus of pleasure is on a different part of body; Oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital
1. oral mouth, love object is mother, who provides the oral stimulation
. anal pleasure shifts to anus and process of being toilet-trained [ - 7 yrs old] they become aware of their gender
. phallic stage shift to own sex organs
4. latency stage sexual impulses are repressed, usually until adolescence [6 - 1 years old]
5. genital stage love object is a person of opposite sex, pleasure in sexual intercourse. [1 years old to adulthood]
Oral fixation overindulgence may result in excessive dependence on others late in life. Gratifying Activities Nursing - eating, as well as mouth movement, including sucking, gumming, biting and swallowing.
To the infant, the mothers breast not only is the source of food and drink, but also represents her love. Because the childs personality is controlled by the id and therefore demands immediate gratification, responsive nurturing is the key.
Anal fixation' the anus is the focus of stimulation and interaction; elimination and toilet training a process through which children are taught when, where, and how excretion is deemed appropriate by society. Children at this stage start to notice the pleasure and displeasure associated with bowel movements. Through toilet training, they also discover their own ability to control such movements. Along with it comes the realization that this ability gives them power over their parents. That is, by exercising control over the retention and expulsion of feces, a child can choose to either grand or resist parents wishes.
As oppose to if a child receives excessive pressure and punishment from parents during toilet training, he will experience anxiety over bowl movements and take pleasure in being able to withhold such functions. Individuals who fail to progress pass this stage are obsessively clean and orderly, and intolerant of others who arent.
. ERIK ERIKSON
Erikson believes that someones personality development is a psychosocial process and these changes are throughout a persons lifetime.
Erikson proposed that development occurs in a series of eight stages.
1 Trust versus mistrust' In the first year of life, infants depend on others for food, warmth, and affection, and therefore must be able to blindly trust the parents (or caregivers) for providing those.
Positive outcome If their needs are met consistently and responsively by the parents, infants not only will develop a secure attachment with the parents, but will learn to trust their environment in general as well.
Negative outcome If not, infant will develop mistrust towards people and things in their environment, even towards themselves.
. Autonomy versus shame and doubt Toddlers learn to walk, talk, use toilets, and do things for themselves. Their self-control and self-confidence begin to develop at this stage.
Positive outcome If parents encourage their childs use of initiative and reassure her when she makes mistakes, the child will develop the confidence needed to cope with future situations that require choice, control, and independence.
Negative outcome If parents are overprotective, or disapproving of the childs acts of independence, she may begin to feel ashamed of her behavior, or have too much doubt of her abilities.
. Initiative versus guilt' Children have newfound power at this stage as they have developed motor skills and become more and more engaged in social interaction with people around them. They now must learn to achieve a balance between eagerness for more adventure and more responsibility, and learning to control impulses and childish fantasies.
Positive outcome If parents are encouraging, but consistent in discipline, children will learn to accept without guilt, that certain things are not allowed, but at the same time will not feel shame when using their imagination and engaging in make-believe role plays.
Negative outcome If not, children may develop a sense of guilt and may come to believe that it is wrong to be independent.
4. Industry versus inferiority' School is the important event at this stage. Children learn to make things, use tools, and acquire the skills to be a worker and a potential provider. And they do all these while making the transition from the world of home into the world of peers.
Positive outcome If children can discover pleasure in intellectual stimulation, being productive, seeking success, they will develop a sense of competence.
Negative outcome If not, they will develop a sense of inferiority.
5. Identity versus role confusion' This is the time when we ask the question Who am I? To successfully answer this question, Erikson suggests, the adolescent must integrate the healthy resolution of all earlier conflicts. Did we develop the basic sense of trust? Do we have a strong sense of independence, competence, and feel in control of our lives? Adolescents who have successfully dealt with earlier conflicts are ready for the Identity Crisis, which is considered by Erikson as the single most significant conflict a person must face.
Positive outcome If the adolescent solves this conflict successfully, he will come out of this stage with a strong identity, and ready to plan for the future.
Negative outcome If not, the adolescent will sink into confusion, unable to make decisions and choices, especially about vocation, sexual orientation, and his role in life in general.
6. Intimacy versus. Isolation' Description In this stage, the most important events are love relationships. No matter how successful you are with your work, said Erikson, you are not developmentally complete until you are capable of intimacy. An individual who has not developed a sense of identity usually will fear a committed relationship and may retreat into isolation.
Positive outcome Adult individuals can form close relationships and share with others if they have achieved a sense of identity.
Negative outcome If not, they will fear commitment, feel isolated and unable to depend on anybody in the world.
7. Generativity versus stagnation' By generativity Erikson refers to the adults ability to look outside oneself and care for others, through parenting, for instance. Erikson suggested that adults need children as much as children need adults, and that this stage reflects the need to create a living legacy.
Positive outcome People can solve this crisis by having and nurturing children, or helping the next generation in other ways.
Negative outcome If this crisis is not successfully resolved, the person will remain self-centered and experience stagnation later in life.
8. Ego Integrity versus. Despair' Old age is a time for reflecting upon ones own life and its role in the big scheme of things, and seeing it filled with pleasure and satisfaction or disappointments and failures.
Positive outcome If the adult has achieved a sense of fulfillment about life and a sense of unity within himself and with others, he will accept death with a sense of integrity. Just as the healthy child will not fear life, said Erikson, the healthy adult will not fear death.
Negative outcome If not, the individual will despair and fear death.
[BEHAVIORAL LEARNING] PAVLOV
Classical conditioning is built on creating relationships by associating formerly unrelated things by trials. Consider a hungry dog who sees a bowl of food. The following might happen
Food --- Salivation
The dog is hungry, the dog sees the food, the dog salivates. This is a natural sequence of events, an unconscious, uncontrolled, and unlearned relationship. See the food, then salivate.
Now, because we are humans who have an insatiable curiosity, we experiment. When we present the food to the hungry dog (and before the dog salivates), we ring a bell. Thus,
Bell --- Food --- Salivation
We repeat this action (food and bell given simultaneously) at several meals. Every time the dog sees the food, the dog also hears the bell. Ding-dong, Alpo.
Now, because we are humans who like to play tricks on our pets, we do another experiment. We ring the bell (Ding-dong), but we dont show any food. What does the dog do? Right,
Bell --- Salivate
The bell elicits the same response the sight of the food gets. Over repeated trials, the dog has learned to associate the bell with the food and now the bell has the power to produce the same response as the food. (And, of course, after youve tricked your dog into drooling and acting even more stupidly than usual, you must give it a special treat.)
This is the essence of Classical Conditioning. It really is that simple. You start with two things that are already connected with each other (food and salivation). Then you add a third thing (bell) for several trials. Eventually, this third thing may become so strongly associated that it has the power to produce the old behavior.
Now, where do we get the term, Conditioning from all this? Let me draw up the diagrams with the official terminology.
Food --------------------- Salivation
Unconditioned Stimulus --- Unconditioned Response
Unconditioned simply means that the stimulus and the response are naturally connected; this connection was already present before we got there and started messing around with the dog.
Stimulus simply means the thing that starts it while response means the thing that ends it. A stimulus elicits and a response is elicited. (This is circular reasoning, true, but hang in there.) Another diagram,
Conditioning Stimulus
Bell
with
Food------ Salivation
Unconditioned Stimulus------ Unconditioned Response
We already know that Unconditioned means unlearned, untaught, preexisting, already-present-before-we-got-there. Conditioning just means the opposite. It means that we are trying to associate, connect, bond, link something new with the old relationship. And we want this new thing to elicit (rather than be elicited) so it will be a stimulus and not a response. Finally, after many trials we hope for,
Bell --------------------- Salivation
Conditioned Stimulus --- Conditioned Response
1. Unconditioned Stimulus a thing that can already elicit a response.
. Unconditioned Response a thing that is already elicited by a stimulus.
. Unconditioned Relationship an existing stimulus-response connection.
4. Conditioning Stimulus a new stimulus we deliver the same time we give the old stimulus.
5. Conditioned Relationship the new stimulus-response relationship we created by associating a new stimulus with an old response.
First, we start with an existing relationship, Unconditioned Stimulus --- Unconditioned Response. Second, we pair a new thing (Conditioning Stimulus) with the existing relationship, until the new thing has the power to elicit the old response.
B.F. SKINNER
The theory of B.F. Skinner is based upon the idea that learning is a function of change in overt behavior. Operant conditioning is that which a behavior followed by a reinforcing stimulus results in an increased probability of that behavior occurring in the future. Imagine a rat in a cage. This is a special cage (called, in fact, a "Skinner box") that has a bar or pedal on one wall that, when pressed, causes a little mechanism to release a foot pellet into the cage. The rat is bouncing around the cage, doing whatever it is rats do, when he accidentally presses the bar and -- hey, presto! -- a food pellet falls into the cage! The operant is the behavior just prior to the positive reinforcer, which is the food pellet, of course. The rat is furiously peddling away at the bar, hoarding his pile of pellets in the corner of the cage. Extinction is that which behavior no longer followed by the reinforcing stimulus results in a decreased probability of that behavior occurring in the future. What if you don't give the rat any more pellets? After a few futile attempts, it stops the bar-pressing behavior. Negative Reinforcement' Behavior followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus results in an increased probability of that behavior occurring in the future, e.g., If you shock a rat for doing x, it'll do a lot less of x.
There are five basic processes in operant conditioning positive and negative reinforcement strengthen behavior; punishment, response cost, and extinction weaken behavior.
1. Positive Reinforcement--the term reinforcement always indicates a process that strengthens a behavior; the word positive has two cues associated with it. First, a positive or pleasant stimulus is used in the process, and second, the reinforcer is added (i.e., positive as in + sign for addition). In positive reinforcement, a positive reinforcer is added after a response and increases the frequency of the response. [Behaviour U + adding pleasant]
. Negative Reinforcement-- the term reinforcement always indicates a process that strengthens a behavior; the word negative has two cues associated with it. First, a negative or aversive stimulus is used in the process, and second, the reinforcer is subtracted. In negative reinforcement, after the response the negative reinforcer is removed which increases the frequency of the response. [Behaviour U + you want the behavior to improve and remove something unpleasant]
. Response Cost--if positive reinforcement strengthens a response by adding a positive stimulus, then response cost has to weaken a behavior by subtracting a positive stimulus. After the response the positive reinforcer is removed which weakens the frequency of the response. [Behaviour ͗ + removing something unpleasant]
4. Punishment--if negative reinforcement strengthens a behavior by subtracting a negative stimulus, than punishment has to weaken a behavior by adding a negative stimulus. After a response a negative or aversive stimulus is added which weakens the frequency of the response. [Behaviour͗ + adding something unpleasant]
5. Extinction--No longer reinforcing a previously reinforced response (using either positive or negative reinforcement) results in the weakening of the frequency of the response.
Shaping toilet training - reinforcement
[SOCIAL-COGNITIVE LEARNING] BANDURA believes that developmental change occurs through observational learning' learning by observing others. Learning is reciprocally determined meaning it results from interactions bet. the child and his physical and social environment [parents]. Observational Learning takes forms Imitation and Modeling. Imitation is directly reinforced for repeating or copying the actions of others. In modeling, the child learns the behaviours and personality traits of a parent or other model through vicarious reinforcement. Direct reinforcement is child to parent or other physical model versus vicarious meaning the child learns the behaviour by observing the interaction bet. parent or model.
[COGNITIVE] JEAN PIAGET
According to his theory, the inquiring young mind is not a clean sheet of paper that is waiting for knowledge to be painted upon it. Instead, it actively constructs knowledge. When it comes in contact with a piece of new information, the child has to understand it in a way that fits into his already established view of the world. In other words, when what kids say or do makes no sense to the grown-ups, it makes perfect sense to the kids themselves. It is when the new information does not fit into the old knowledge system that children will adjust their thinking and re-construct their knowledge so that they can understand and assimilate the new information. Piaget suggested four hardwired stages that children go through in developing such abilities. Influences can be made to the development, but attempts to force-teaching skills that are not appropriate to a stage will be counter-productive.
Scheme is a methodical pattern of thoughts, actions, and problem-solving strategies that helps the child to deal with a particular intellectual challenge or situation. Mental representation.
Assimilation is the process by which an infant interprets and responds to a new experience or situation in terms of an existing scheme.
Accommodations, a childs existing schemes no longer work when faced with new ideas or situations.
Adaption occurs when schemes are deepened or broadened by assimilation and stretched or modified by accommodation.
Stage 1. Sensorimotor (Infancy)
At this stage, cognitive development focuses on motor and reflex actions. The child learns about herself and her environment through sensation and movement. They have a great interest in the faces and voices of their caretakers. Parents can help the development by making faces, talking and singing to them.
Stage . Preoperational (Toddler and Early Childhood) -7 years old
At this stage, the main focus of the childs intellectual development is language and using symbols (e.g., pictures and words) to represent ideas and objects. The child does these intuitively. The child at this stage has an active imagination and vivid fantasies. It is not uncommon for him to personify objects. Parents and teachers should use and take advantage of these characteristics of the childs intelligence to help him learn.
Stage . Concrete Operation (Elementary and Early Adolescence) 7 - 11 years old
At this stage, children begin to process abstract concepts such as numbers and relationships but they need concrete examples to understand these concepts. If before they could manipulate objects only physically, now they can do so mentally. Child education practice for this stage should focus on these aspects accordingly.
Stage 4. Formal Operation (Adolescence and Adulthood) 11yrs. - adulthood
At this stage, the child begins to reason logically and analytically without requiring references to concrete applications. This symbolizes the reaching of the final form of intelligence. At this stage, the child is also capable of hypothetical and deductive reasoning. Teaching at this stage should be in a way that it encourages young people to consider many possibilities from several perspectives.
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